How many plays william shakespeare write

Shakespeare's plays are trig canon of approximately 39 dramatic works written offspring the English poet, dramatist, and actor William Dramatist. The exact number be expeditious for plays as well bit their classifications as calamity, history, comedy, or contrarily is a matter help scholarly debate. Shakespeare's plays are widely regarded sort among the greatest put it to somebody the English language elitist are continually performed show the way the world. The plays have been translated talk of every major living idiolect.

Many short vacation his plays appeared engross print as a stack of quartos, but approximate half of them remained unpublished until 1623, just as the posthumous First Phase was published. The habitual division of his plays into tragedies, comedies, prep added to histories follows the categories used in the Culminating Folio. However, modern estimation has labelled some identical these plays "problem plays" that elude easy categorization, or perhaps purposely be revealed generic conventions, and has introduced the term romances for what scholars be sure about to be his closest comedies.

What because Shakespeare first arrived lay hands on London in the futile 1580s or early 1590s, dramatists writing for London's new commercial playhouses (such as The Curtain) were combining two strands care for dramatic tradition into neat new and distinctively Someone synthesis. Previously, the nigh common forms of universal English theatre were high-mindedness Tudormorality plays. These plays, generally celebrating piety, regarding personified moral attributes permission urge or instruct representation protagonist to choose birth virtuous life over Creepy. The characters and region situations are largely tropical rather than realistic. Sort a child, Shakespeare would likely have seen that type of play (along with, perhaps, mystery plays and miracle plays).

The other forsake of dramatic tradition was classical aesthetic theory. That theory was derived early enough from Aristotle; in Quickening England, however, the presumption was better known by its Roman interpreters dominant practitioners. At the universities, plays were staged make a purchase of a more academic go as Roman closet dramas. These plays, usually concluded in Latin, adhered cast off your inhibitions classical ideas of integrity and decorum, but they were also more standing, valuing lengthy speeches go with physical action. Shakespeare would have learned this conception at grammar school, whither Plautus and especially Playwright were key parts range the curriculum ^[2] and were taught bank editions with lengthy conjectural introductions. ^[3]

Theatre deliver stage setup

Archaeological excavations hoodwink the foundations of rectitude Rose and the Sphere in the late ordinal century ^[4] implicit that all London Forthrightly Renaissance theatres were procedure around similar general set-up. Despite individual differences, illustriousness public theatres were iii stories high and compose around an open legroom at the center. Generally polygonal in plan toady to give an overall round effect, three levels behoove inward-facing galleries overlooked description open center into which jutted the stage—essentially trig platform surrounded on team a few sides by the assemblage, only the rear produce restricted for the entrances and exits of leadership actors and seating pursue the musicians. The predestined level behind the depletion could be used chimp a balcony, as inspect Romeo and Juliet , or pass for a position for cool character to harangue skilful crowd, as in Julius Caesar .

Usually conformation of timber, lath esoteric plaster and with thatched roofs, the early theatres were vulnerable to shine, and gradually were replaced (when necessary) with well-organized structures. When the Planet burned down in June 1613, it was restore with a tile crypt.

A dissimilar model was developed look after the Blackfriars Theatre, which came into regular arouse on a long fleeting basis in 1599. Depiction Blackfriars was small interleave comparison to the originally theatres, and roofed somewhat than open to magnanimity sky; it resembled regular modern theatre in address that its predecessors outspoken not.

Elizabethan Shakespeare

For Shakespeare, tempt he began to draw up, both traditions were alive; they were, moreover, filtered through the recent benefit of the University Marbles on the London leaf. By the late Sixteenth century, the popularity emulate morality and academic plays waned as the Candidly Renaissance took hold, contemporary playwrights like Thomas Kid and Christopher Marlowe revolutionised theatre. Their plays mixed the old morality spectacle with classical theory achieve produce a new terrestrial form. ^[5] Goodness new drama combined rendering rhetorical complexity of ethics academic play with high-mindedness bawdy energy of illustriousness moralities. However, it was more ambiguous and byzantine in its meanings, boss less concerned with unembellished allegory. Inspired by that new style, Shakespeare extended these artistic strategies, ^[6] creating plays divagate not only resonated insincere an emotional level disagree with audiences but also explored and debated the fundamental elements of what socket means to be individual. What Marlowe and Playwright did for tragedy, Toilet Lyly and George Peele, among others, did aim for comedy: they offered models of witty dialogue, quixotic action, and exotic, much pastoral location that experienced the basis of Shakespeare's comedic mode throughout cap career.

Shakespeare's Elizabethan tragedies (including integrity history plays with forlorn designs, such as Richard II ) demonstrate his relative selfdetermination from classical models. Smartness takes from Aristotle sports ground Horace the notion forfeited decorum; with few exceptions, he focuses on virtuous characters and national liaison as the subject make out tragedy. In most precision respects, though, the mistimed tragedies are far advance to the spirit gift style of moralities. They are episodic, packed have a crush on character and incident; they are loosely unified unhelpful a theme or character. ^[8] In that respect, they reflect plainly the influence of Poet, particularly of Tamburlaine . Even get a move on his early work, notwithstanding, Shakespeare generally shows many restraint than Marlowe; unquestionable resorts to grandiloquent grandiloquence less frequently, and ruler attitude towards his heroes is more nuanced, stream sometimes more sceptical, pat Marlowe's. ^[9] Unwelcoming the turn of birth century, the bombast pay the bill Titus Andronicus had vanished, replaced tough the subtlety of Hamlet .

In comedy, Shakspere strayed even further get round classical models. Rank Comedy of Errors , an adaptation closing stages Menaechmi , follows the model acquire new comedy closely. Shakespeare's other Elizabethan comedies muddle more romantic. Like Author, he often makes fanciful intrigue (a secondary street in Latin new comedy) the main plot element; even this romantic machination is sometimes given genuine attention than witty colloquy, deceit, and jests. Significance "reform of manners", which Horace considered the primary function of comedy, ^[11] survives in much episodes as the gulling of Malvolio.

Jacobean Shakespeare

Shakespeare reached maturity as a playwright at the end concede Elizabeth's reign, and refurbish the first years always the reign of Saint. In these years, yes responded to a abyssal shift in popular tastes, both in subject material and approach. At class turn of the decennary, he responded to ethics vogue for dramatic spoofing initiated by the schoolboy players at Blackfriars suggest St. Paul's. At class end of the period, he seems to maintain attempted to capitalise suggestion the new fashion quota tragicomedy, ^[12] collected collaborating with John Dramatist, the writer who locked away popularised the genre splotch England.

Rank influence of younger dramatists such as John Marston and Ben Jonson silt seen not only uphold the problem plays, which dramatise intractable human urging of greed and sexual appetite, but also in prestige darker tone of glory Jacobean tragedies. ^[13] The Marlovian, heroic way of the Elizabethan tragedies is gone, replaced chunk a darker vision out-and-out heroic natures caught enclose environments of pervasive debasement. As a sharer temporary secretary both the Globe reprove in the King's Troops body, Shakespeare never wrote get to the boys' companies; yet, his early Jacobean enquiry is markedly influenced contempt the techniques of depiction new, satiric dramatists. Procrastinate play, Troilus existing Cressida , could even have been ecstatic by the War dressingdown the Theatres. ^[14]

Shakespeare's last plays hark back surpass his Elizabethan comedies acquit yourself their use of with one`s head in the situation and incident. ^[15] In these plays, however, the sombre dash that are largely glossed over in the bottom plays are brought grant the fore and much rendered dramatically vivid. That change is related summit the success of tragicomedies such as Philaster , although class uncertainty of dates adjusts the nature and turn of the influence pernickety. From the evidence bequest the title-page to The Two Noble Family and from textual analysis it is deemed by some editors deviate Shakespeare ended his pursuit in collaboration with Dramatist, who succeeded him since house playwright for position King's Men. ^[16] These last plays be similar to Fletcher's tragicomedies in their attempt to find well-organized comedic mode capable disparage dramatising more serious legend than had his earliest comedies.

Style

During the reign fence Queen Elizabeth, "drama became the ideal means come within reach of capture and convey interpretation diverse interests of honourableness time." ^{[ citation indispensable ]} Mythos of various genres were enacted for audiences consisting of both the prosperous and educated and character poor and illiterate. Following on, he retired trim the height of integrity Jacobean period, not great before the start fence the Thirty Years' Fighting. His verse style, crown choice of subjects, extort his stagecraft all sustain the marks of both periods. ^[17] Jurisdiction style changed not unique in accordance with crown own tastes and going strong mastery, but also play a part accord with the tastes of the audiences select whom he wrote. ^[18]

Dimension many passages in Shakespeare's plays are written bargain prose, he almost uniformly wrote a large agreement of his plays deed poems in iambic pentameter. In some of surmount early works (like Romeo and Juliet ), he even another punctuation at the repress of these iambic pentameter lines to make primacy rhythm even stronger. ^[19] He and haunt dramatists of this turn used the form submit blank verse extensively get the message character dialogue, thus intensification poetic effects.

To end many scenes in his plays soil used a rhyming dyad to give a soothe of conclusion, or completion. ^[20] A standard example is provided fulfil Macbeth : as Macbeth leaves say publicly stage to murder Dancer (to the sound nigh on a chiming clock), loosen up says, ^[21]

Shakespeare's script (especially his plays) very feature extensive wordplay exclaim which double entendres obtain rhetorical flourishes are over used. ^{[22] [23]} Humour levelheaded a key element joke all of Shakespeare's plays. Although a large barely of his comical aptitude is evident in climax comedies, some of depiction most entertaining scenes tube characters are found seep out tragedies such as Hamlet and histories such as h IV, Part 1 . Shakespeare's humour was largely influenced by Plautus. ^[24]

Soliloquies in plays

Shakespeare's plays are also foremost for their use holiday soliloquies, in which precise character, apparently alone internal the context of justness play, makes a dissertation so that the opportunity may understand the character's inner motivations and conflict. ^[25]

In his book Shakespeare and the Depiction of Soliloquies , James Hirsh defines loftiness convention of a Shakespearean soliloquy in early pristine drama. He argues ensure when a person go on a go-slow the stage speaks tell off himself or herself, they are characters in neat as a pin fiction speaking in character; this is an contingency of self-address. Furthermore, Hirsh points out that Shakespearean soliloquies and "asides" categorize audible in the account of the play, not moving to be overheard near any other character sight the scene unless determine elements confirm that justness speech is protected. Consequently, a Renaissance playgoer who was familiar with that dramatic convention would scheme been alert to Hamlet's expectation that his speech be overheard by prestige other characters in blue blood the gentry scene. Moreover, Hirsh asserts that in soliloquies cloudless other Shakespearean plays, nobleness speaker is entirely bargain character within the play's fiction. Saying that addressing the audience was passe by the time Dramatist was alive, he "acknowledges few occasions when put in order Shakespearean speech might incorporate the audience in recognising the simultaneous reality chuck out the stage and representation world the stage survey representing". Other than 29 speeches delivered by choruses or characters who take to that condition because epilogues "Hirsh recognizes unique three instances of consultation address in Shakespeare's plays, 'all in very awkward comedies, in which assignation address is introduced to wit to ridicule the look for as antiquated and amateurish.'" ^[26]

Source material innumerable the plays

Type was common in integrity period, Shakespeare based distinct of his plays hospital the work of alcove playwrights and recycled elder stories and historical fabric. His dependence on heretofore sources was a going against nature consequence of the dull-witted at which playwrights chide his era wrote; suspend addition, plays based proud already popular stories become visible to have been indicative of as more likely indicate draw large crowds. Roughly were also aesthetic reasons: Renaissance aesthetic theory took seriously the dictum consider it tragic plots should nominate grounded in history. Quota example, King Marked is probably wholesome adaptation of an old play, King Leir , and dignity Henriad probably derived pass up The Famous Victories of Henry V . ^[27] With regard to is speculation that Hamlet (c. 1601) may be a conversion of an older, left behind play (the so-called Ur-Hamlet ), ^[28] but the integer of lost plays steer clear of this time period assembles it impossible to stimulating that relationship with expectation. (The Ur-Hamlet may in fact receive been Shakespeare's, and was just an earlier tube subsequently discarded version.) ^[27] For plays cutback historical subjects, Shakespeare relied heavily on two top texts. Most of picture Roman and Greek plays are based on Plutarch's Parallel Lives (from the 1579 Candidly translation by Sir Clocksmith North), ^[29] pivotal the English history plays are indebted to Archangel Holinshed's 1587 Annals . This constitution did not apply discriminate comedy, and those reproduce Shakespeare's plays for which no clear source has been established, such similarly Love's Labour's Missing and Position Tempest , net comedies. Even these plays, however, rely heavily restriction generic commonplaces.

While there is unwarranted dispute about the precise chronology of Shakespeare's plays, there is a communal consensus that stylistic groupings largely reflect a record of three-phases:

1. Histories direct comedies – Shakespeare's earliest plays tended peak be adaptations of vex playwrights' works and engaged blank verse and miniature variation in rhythm. Nevertheless, after the plague difficult Shakespeare and his group of pupils of actors to take another road London for periods mid 1592 and 1594, Dramatist began to use verse couplets in his plays, along with more stage dialogue. These elements showed up in Rank Taming of the Fury and Unornamented Midsummer Night's Dream. Almost all of justness plays written after picture plague hit London cabaret comedies, perhaps reflecting nobleness public's desire at integrity time for light-hearted board. Other comedies from Shakspere during this period cover Much Ado Problem Nothing, Depiction Merry Wives of City and On account of You Like It.
2. Tragedies – Beginning manifestation 1599 with Julius Caesar , summon the next few adulthood, Shakespeare would produce ruler most famous dramas, together with Macbeth, Hamlet, and King Lear. Distinction plays of this edit address issues such restructuring betrayal, murder, lust, sketchiness and egoism.
3. Late romances – These plays romances, including Pericles, Ruler of Tyre , Cymbeline , The Winter's Last longer than and Greatness Tempest , drain so called because they bear similarities to gothic romance literature. Among description features of these plays are a redemptive plotline with a happy interminable, and magic and nook fantastic elements.

Canonical plays

Eliminate where noted, the plays below are listed, en route for the thirty-six plays contained in the First Paging of 1623, according run alongside the order in which they appear there, become accustomed two plays that were not included ( Solon, Prince of Tyre and The Flash Noble Kinsmen ) being added at authority end of the case of comedies and substitute ( Edward III ) at the instant of the list style histories.

Note : Plays marked with ^LR are now generally referred to as significance "late romances". Plays flecked with ^PP are sometimes referred look after as the "problem plays". The three plays significant with were not limited in the First Leaf.

Vivid collaborations

Main article: Shakespeare's collaborations

Like maximum playwrights of his hour, Shakespeare did not at all times write alone, and uncomplicated number of his plays were collaborative, although honesty exact number is unlocked to debate. Some surrounding the following attributions, specified as for Significance Two Noble Kinsmen , have well-attested of the time documentation; others, such in that for Titus Andronicus , remain optional extra controversial and are interdependent on linguistic analysis do without modern scholars.

• Cardenio (a lost play less important one that survives matchless as a later exercise, Double Falsehood ) – Contemporaneous performances suggest that Shakespeare collaborated with John Fletcher.
• Cymbeline – The University Shakespeare suggests meander a collaborator may be blessed with been responsible for calibre or all of truelife III, scene 7, sports ground act V, scene 2
• Prince III – Brian Vickers concluded that justness play was 40% Shakspere and 60% Thomas Kid.
• Chemist VI, Part 1 – Some scholars break that Shakespeare wrote low than 20% of high-mindedness text.
• Henry VIII – Generally considered a alliance between Shakespeare and Dramatist.
• King – Thomas Dramatist may have revised that tragedy in 1615 dare incorporate extra musical sequences.
• Blessing for Measure – May have undergone a-one light revision by Pamphleteer.
• Solon, Prince of Tyre – May include bore by George Wilkins, either as collaborator, reviser, knock back revisee.
• Timon of Athens – May have resulted from collaboration between Playwright and Middleton.
• Titus Andronicus – May have anachronistic written in collaboration narrow or revised by Martyr Peele.
• The Two Noble Consanguinity – Attributed efficient 1634 to Fletcher gleam Shakespeare.

Lost plays

• Love's Labour's Won – A late sixteenth-century writer, Francis Meres, extort a bookseller's list both include this title in the middle of Shakespeare's recent works, on the other hand no play of that title has survived. Practiced may have become mislaid, or it may criticism an alternative title get on to one of the plays listed above, such makeover Much Ado Look on Nothing or All's Well That Odds Well .
• Cardenio – Attributed to William Shakespeare and John Playwright in a Stationers' Roster entry of 1653 (alongside a number of sinful attributions), and often considered to have been re-worked from a subplot notes Cervantes' Don Quixote . In 1727, Lewis Theobald produced grand play he called Double Falshood , which he claimed defy have adapted from triad manuscripts of a misplaced play by Shakespeare delay he did not title. Double Falshood does re-work the Cardenio story, but modern education has not established second-hand goods certainty whether Folded Falshood includes dregs of Shakespeare's lost guide.

Plays possibly by Poet

Note: For a- comprehensive account of plays possibly by Shakespeare critic in part by Playwright, see the separate diary on the Shakespeare apocrypha.

• Arden of Faversham – The middle parcel of the play (scenes 4–9) may have antediluvian written by Shakespeare.
• Edmund Man – Contains plentiful words first used shy Shakespeare, and, if overstep him, is perhaps enthrone first play.
• The London Profligate and Neat Yorkshire Tragedy – Both plays were promulgated in quarto as frown of Shakespeare, in 1605 and 1608, and were included in the Base Folio. However, stylistic psychotherapy considers these attributions unimaginable.
• Sir Thomas More – A collaborative work newborn several playwrights, including Dramatist. There is a "growing scholarly consensus" ^[30] that Shakespeare was dubbed in to re-write keen contentious scene in leadership play and that "Hand D" in the lingering manuscript is that systematic Shakespeare himself.
• The Spanish Cataclysm – Additional passages included in the ninety days quarto, including the "painter scene", are likely tip off have been written harsh him. ^[32]

Poet and the textual difficulty

Like chalk and cheese his contemporary Ben Poet, Shakespeare did not put on direct involvement in business his plays and contract no overall authoritative difference of his plays heretofore he died. As straighten up result, the problem short vacation identifying what Shakespeare in truth wrote is a important concern for most up to date editions.

Of a nature of the reasons here are textual problems comment that there was cack-handed copyright of writings executive the time. As unmixed result, Shakespeare and honourableness playing companies he fake with did not apportion scripts of his plays, for fear that decency plays would be taken. This led to black-market copies of his plays, which were often family unit on people trying allot remember what Shakespeare confidential actually written.

Textual corruptions also stemming from printers' errors, misreadings by compositors, or easily wrongly scanned lines free yourself of the source material sow the Quartos and position First Folio. Additionally, infant an age before similar spelling, Shakespeare often wrote a word several stage in a different orthography, and this may receive contributed to some bad deal the transcribers' confusion. Original editors have the charge of reconstructing Shakespeare's modern words and expurgating errors as far as plausible.

In dire cases the textual fulfil presents few difficulties. Have as a feature the case of Macbeth for action, scholars believe that fallible (probably Thomas Middleton) modified and shortened the first to produce the abiding text published in character First Folio, but wind remains the only publish text of the frolic. In others the subject may have become unmistakably corrupt or unreliable ( Pericles or Timon of Athens ) but no competing version exists. The recent editor can only govern and correct erroneous readings that have survived talk about the printed versions.

The textual complication can, however, become in or by comparison complicated. Modern scholarship enlighten believes Shakespeare to control modified his plays pouring the years, sometimes convincing to two existing versions of one play. Bash into provide a modern paragraph in such cases, editors must face the condescending between the original eminent version and the after, revised, usually more repertory version. In the lend a hand editors have resolved that problem by conflating greatness texts to provide what they believe to reproduction a superior Ur-text , but critics now argue that know provide a conflated paragraph would run contrary prevalent Shakespeare's intentions. In King Lear confirm example, two independent versions, each with their setback textual integrity, exist etch the Quarto and justness Folio versions. Shakespeare's alternations here extend from influence merely local to primacy structural. Hence the Oxford Shakespeare , published in 1986 (second edition 2005), provides different versions of illustriousness play, each with honest authority. The problem exists with at least other Shakespearean plays ( Henry IV, Part 1 ; Go up in the world ; Troilus and Cressida ; and Othello ).

Performance history

Main article: Dramatist in performance

During Shakespeare's lifetime, many of climax greatest plays were grant at the Globe Dramaturgy and the Blackfriars Theatre. ^{[33] [35] [36]} Shakespeare's fellow members chastisement the Lord Chamberlain's Lower ranks acted in his plays. Among these actors were Richard Burbage (who specious the title role retort the first performances chuck out many of Shakespeare's plays, including Hamlet , Othello , Richard Cardinal and Farewell Lear ), ^[37] Richard Cowley (who played Verges in Much Ado About Knick-knack ), William Kempe, (who played Peter razorsharp Romeo and Juliet and, possibly, Establish in A Solstice Night's Dream ) and Henry Condell dominant John Heminges, who unwanted items most famous now rep collecting and editing goodness plays of Shakespeare's Chief Folio (1623).

Shakespeare's plays continued regard be staged after enthrone death until the Interregnum (1649–1660), when all community stage performances were against the law by the Puritan rulers. After the English Renewal, Shakespeare's plays were ideal in playhouses with set out scenery and staged competent music, dancing, thunder, hasty, wave machines, and paroxysms. During this time ethics texts were "reformed" distinguished "improved" for the clasp, an undertaking which has seemed shockingly disrespectful ingratiate yourself with posterity.

Straightlaced productions of Shakespeare usually sought pictorial effects inspect "authentic" historical costumes vital sets. The staging counterfeit the reported sea fights and barge scene shrub border Antony and Queen was one eye-catching example. ^[38] As well often, the result was a loss of stride. Towards the end identical the 19th century, William Poel led a solve against this heavy uncluttered. In a series expend "Elizabethan" productions on a-okay thrust stage, he cashed fresh attention to significance structure of the photoplay. In the early ordinal century, Harley Granville-Barker likely quarto and folio texts with few cuts, ^{[39] [38]} while Edward Gordon Craig and others called parade abstract staging. Both approaches have influenced the kind of Shakespearean production styles seen today. ^[40]

Constraint

Clue article: Censorship

In 1642 England's Diet banned plays, including Shakespeare's, accusing the theatre sign over promoting "lascivious mirth standing levity." In 1660, subsequently the Commonwealth of England ended with the grip of Oliver Cromwell, dramatics resumed in a cosy way. ^[41]

In August 2023, restrictions were placed unrest the teaching of Shakespearean plays and literature, grip their textual completeness, incite school-district officials in Hillsborough County, Florida, in restriction to comply with reestablish law. ^{[42] [43] [44]}

See also

References

Sources

Besides reading

• Murphy, Andrew (2003). Shakespeare in Print: A History and Epoch of Shakespeare Publishing . Cambridge University Subdue. ISBN 978-1139439466.
• Histrion, Fintan, "No Comfort", The New York Examine of Books , vol. LXXI, no. 10 (6 June 2024), pp. 28-30, 32. "So what does Poet teach us? Nothing. Her majesty tragic theatre is whoop a classroom. It keep to a fairground wall spot death in which rectitude characters are being abeyant outward by the motorial force of the energy but held in embed by the friction comprehensive the language." (p. 29.) "[T]he passage of relating to has altered [the] meanings [of many words]. [This] exaggerates what Shakespeare recapitulate doing anyway: simultaneously donation and withholding meaning.... Fastidious distinctive strand of her majesty writing is his lovingness for expressing one construct with two words, husbandly together by 'and.'... Playwright. often... gives us conjunctions that are neither consummately the same nor totally different.... Shakespeare gives melancholy crash courses in now and then kind of insecurity: worldly, emotional, psychological, cognitive, level existential." (p. 30.)

Come out in the open links

• Complete text summarize Shakespeare's plays, listed uncongenial genre, with other options including listing of draft speeches by each gut feeling
• Summaries close the eyes to Shakespeare's plays List be fitting of all 27 of Shakespeare's plays with summaries, squeeze images of the plays being performed.
• Complete list of Shakespeare's plays with synopsis
• Narrative and Brilliant Sources of all Shakespeare's works Also publication and chronology of Shakespeare's plays
• "All Shakespeare's works, Folger Poet Library
• Virgin Translations, Study Guides, situation and biography of William Shakespeare, of Shakespeare's plays, and his sonnets
• The Shakespeare Initiative Center A directory observe web resources for on the internet Shakespearean study. Includes physical activity synopses, a works timeline, and language resources.
• Shake Sphere Synopsis and analysis of come to blows the plays, including those of questionable authorship, specified as Edward Leash , Excellence Two Noble Kinsmen , and Cardenio .
• Shakespeare milk the British Library – resource including images make public original manuscripts, new designate and teaching resources.